Bytecode Reference¶
The following document describes the LuaVela bytecode instructions. See
src/lj_bc.h
in the LuaVela source code for details. The bytecode can be
listed with luajit -b-
, see Running LuaVela.
A single bytecode instruction is 32 bit wide and has an 8 bit opcode field and several operand fields of 8 or 16 bit. Instructions come in one of two formats:
B |
C |
A |
OP |
D |
A |
OP |
The figure shows the least-significant bit on the right. In-memory instructions
are always stored in host byte order. E.g. 0xbbccaa14 is the instruction with
opcode 0x14 (ADD
), with operands A = 0xaa, B = 0xbb and C = 0xcc.
The suffix(es) of the instruction name distinguish variants of the same basic instruction:
- V variable slot
- S string constant
- N number constant
- P primitive type
- B unsigned byte literal
- M multiple arguments/results
Here are the possible operand types:
- (none): unused operand
- var: variable slot number
- dst: variable slot number, used as a destination
- base: base slot number, read-write
- rbase: base slot number, read-only
- uv: upvalue number
- lit: literal
- lits: signed literal
- pri: primitive type (0 = nil, 1 = false, 2 = true)
- num: number constant, index into constant table
- str: string constant, negated index into constant table
- tab: template table, negated index into constant table
- func: function prototype, negated index into constant table
- cdata: cdata constant, negated index into constant table
- jump: branch target, relative to next instruction, biased with 0x8000
Comparison¶
All comparison and test ops are immediately followed by a JMP
instruction
which holds the target of the conditional jump. All comparisons and tests jump
to the target if the comparison or test is true. Otherwise they fall through to
the instruction after the JMP
.
OP | A | D | Description |
---|---|---|---|
ISLT |
var |
var |
Jump if A < D |
ISGE |
var |
var |
Jump if A ≥ D |
ISLE |
var |
var |
Jump if A ≤ D |
ISGT |
var |
var |
Jump if A > D |
ISEQV |
var |
var |
Jump if A = D |
ISNEV |
var |
var |
Jump if A ≠ D |
ISEQS |
var |
str |
Jump if A = D |
ISNES |
var |
str |
Jump if A ≠ D |
ISEQN |
var |
num |
Jump if A = D |
ISNEN |
var |
num |
Jump if A ≠ D |
ISEQP |
var |
pri |
Jump if A = D |
ISNEP |
var |
pri |
Jump if A ≠ D |
Note
Q: Why do we need four different ordered comparisons? Wouldn’t <
and
<=
suffice with appropriately swapped operands?
A: No, because for floating-point comparisons (x < y)
is not the same
as not (x >= y)
in the presence of NaNs.
The LuaJIT parser preserves the ordered comparison semantics of the source code as follows:
Source code | Bytecode |
---|---|
if x < y then | ISGE x y |
if x <= y then | ISGT x y |
if x > y then | ISGE y x |
if x >= y then | ISGT y x |
if not (x < y) then | ISLT x y |
if not (x <= y) then | ISLE x y |
if not (x > y) then | ISLT y x |
if not (x >= y) then | ISLE y x |
(In)equality comparisons are swapped as needed to bring constants to the right.
Unary Test and Copy¶
These instructions test whether a variable evaluates to true or false in a
boolean context. In Lua only nil
and false
are considered false, all
other values are true. These instructions are generated for simple truthness
tests like if x then
or when evaluating the and
and or
operators.
OP | A | D | Description |
---|---|---|---|
ISTC |
dst |
var |
Copy D to A and jump, if D is true |
ISFC |
dst |
var |
Copy D to A and jump, if D is false |
IST |
var |
Jump if D is true | |
ISF |
var |
Jump if D is false |
Note
Q: What do we need the test and copy ops for?
A: In Lua the and
and or
operators return the original value of one
of their operands. It’s generally only known whether the result is unused
after parsing the full expression. In this case the test and copy ops can
easily be turned into test ops in the previously emitted bytecode.
Unary ops¶
OP | A | D | Description |
---|---|---|---|
MOV |
dst |
var |
Copy D to A |
NOT |
dst |
var |
Set A to boolean not of D |
UNM |
dst |
var |
Set A to -D (unary minus) |
LEN |
dst |
var |
Set A to #D (object length) |
Binary ops¶
OP | A | B | C | Description |
---|---|---|---|---|
ADD |
dst |
var |
var |
A = B + C |
SUB |
dst |
var |
var |
A = B - C |
MUL |
dst |
var |
var |
A = B * C |
DIV |
dst |
var |
var |
A = B / C |
MOD |
dst |
var |
var |
A = B % C |
POW |
dst |
var |
var |
A = B ^ C |
CAT |
dst |
base |
base |
A = B .. ~ .. C |
Note
The CAT
instruction concatenates all values in variable slots B to C
inclusive.
Constant ops¶
OP | A | D | Description |
---|---|---|---|
KSTR |
dst |
str |
Set A to string constant D |
KCDATA |
dst |
cdata |
Set A to cdata constant D |
KSHORT |
dst |
lits |
Set A to 16 bit signed integer D |
KNUM |
dst |
num |
Set A to number constant D |
KPRI |
dst |
pri |
Set A to primitive D |
KNIL |
base |
base |
Set slots A to D to nil |
Note
A single nil
value is set with KPRI
. KNIL
is only used when
multiple values need to be set to nil
.
Upvalue and Function ops¶
OP | A | D | Description |
---|---|---|---|
UGET |
dst |
uv |
Set A to upvalue D |
USETV |
uv |
var |
Set upvalue A to D |
USETS |
uv |
str |
Set upvalue A to string constant D |
USETN |
uv |
num |
Set upvalue A to number constant D |
USETP |
uv |
pri |
Set upvalue A to primitive D |
UCLO |
rbase |
jump |
Close upvalues for slots ≥ rbase and jump to target D |
FNEW |
dst |
func |
Create new closure from prototype D and store it in A |
Note
Q: Why does UCLO
have a jump target?
A: UCLO
is usually the last instruction in a block and is often
followed by a JMP
. Merging the jump into UCLO
speeds up execution and
simplifies some bytecode fixup steps (see fs_fixup_ret()
in
src/lj_parse.c
). A non-branching UCLO
simply jumps to the next
instruction.
Table manipulation¶
OP | A | B | C | Description |
---|---|---|---|---|
TNEW |
dst |
lit |
Set A to new table with size D (see below) | |
TDUP |
dst |
tab |
Set A to duplicated template table D | |
GGET |
dst |
str |
A = _G[D] | |
GSET |
var |
str |
_G[D] = A | |
TGETV |
dst |
var |
var |
A = B[C] |
TGETS |
dst |
var |
str |
A = B[C] |
TGETB |
dst |
var |
lit |
A = B[C] |
TSETV |
var |
var |
var |
B[C] = A |
TSETS |
var |
var |
str |
B[C] = A |
TSETB |
var |
var |
lit |
B[C] = A |
TSETM |
base |
num |
(A-1)[D], (A-1)[D+1], … = A, A+1, … |
Note
The 16 bit literal D operand of TNEW
is split up into two fields: the
lowest 11 bits give the array size (allocates slots 0 .. asize - 1
, or
none if zero). The upper 5 bits give the hash size as a power of two
(allocates 2 ^ hsize
hash slots, or none if zero).
Note
GGET
and GSET
are named ‘global’ get and set, but actually index the
current function environment getfenv(1)
(which is usually the same as
_G
).
Note
TGETB
and TSETB
interpret the 8 bit literal C operand as an unsigned
integer index (0..255) into table B.
Note
Operand D of TSETM
points to a biased floating-point number in the
constant table. Only the lowest 32 bits from the mantissa are used as a
starting table index. MULTRES from the previous bytecode gives the number of
table slots to fill.
Calls and Vararg Handling¶
All call instructions expect a special setup: the function (or object) to be
called is in slot A, followed by the arguments in consecutive slots. Operand C
is one plus the number of fixed arguments. Operand B is one plus the number of
return values, or zero for calls which return all results (and set MULTRES
accordingly).
Operand C for calls with multiple arguments (CALLM
or CALLMT
) is set to
the number of fixed arguments. MULTRES
is added to that to get the actual
number of arguments to pass.
For consistency, the specialized call instructions ITERC
, ITERN
and the
vararg instruction VARG
share the same operand format. Operand C of
ITERC
and ITERN
is always 3 = 1 + 2, i.e. two arguments are passed to
the iterator function. Operand C of VARG
is repurposed to hold the number of
fixed arguments of the enclosing function. This speeds up access to the variable
argument part of the vararg pseudo-frame below.
MULTRES
is an internal variable that keeps track of the number of results
returned by the previous call or by VARG
instructions with multiple results.
It’s used by calls (CALLM
or CALLMT
) or returns (RETM
) with multiple
arguments and by a table initializer (TSETM
).
OP | A | B | C | Description |
---|---|---|---|---|
CALLM |
base |
lit |
lit |
Call: A, …, A+B-2 = A(A+1, …, A+C+MULTRES) |
CALL |
base |
lit |
lit |
Call: A, …, A+B-2 = A(A+1, …, A+C-1) |
CALLMT |
base |
lit |
Tailcall: return A(A+1, …, A+D+MULTRES) | |
CALLT |
base |
lit |
Tailcall: return A(A+1, …, A+D-1) | |
ITERC |
base |
lit |
lit |
Call iterator: A, A+1, A+2 = A-3, A-2, A-1; A, …, A+B-2 = A(A+1, A+2) |
ITERN |
base |
lit |
lit |
Specialized ITERC, if iterator function A-3 is next() |
VARG |
base |
lit |
lit |
Vararg: A, …, A+B-2 = … |
ISNEXT |
base |
jump |
Verify ITERN specialization and jump |
Note
The Lua parser heuristically determines whether pairs()
or next()
might be used in a loop. In this case, the JMP
and the iterator call
ITERC
are replaced with the specialized versions ISNEXT
and
ITERN
.
ISNEXT
verifies at runtime that the iterator actually is the next()
function, that the argument is a table and that the control variable is
nil
. Then it sets the lowest 32 bits of the slot for the control variable
to zero and jumps to the iterator call, which uses this number to efficiently
step through the keys of the table.
If any of the assumptions turn out to be wrong, the bytecode is despecialized
at runtime back to JMP
and ITERC
.
Returns¶
All return instructions copy the results starting at slot A down to the slots starting at one below the base slot (the slot holding the frame link and the currently executing function).
The RET0
and RET1
instructions are just specialized versions of RET
.
Operand D is one plus the number of results to return.
For RETM
, operand D holds the number of fixed results to return. MULTRES
is added to that to get the actual number of results to return.
OP | A | D | Description |
---|---|---|---|
RETM |
base |
lit |
return A, …, A+D+MULTRES-1 |
RET |
rbase |
lit |
return A, …, A+D-2 |
RET0 |
rbase |
lit |
return |
RET1 |
rbase |
lit |
return A |
Loops and branches¶
The Lua language offers four loop types, which are translated into different bytecode instructions:
- The numeric ‘for’ loop:
for i = start, stop, step do body end
=> set start, stop,stepFORI
bodyFORL
- The iterator ‘for’ loop:
for vars... in iter, state, ctl do body end
=> set iter, state, ctlJMP
bodyITERC
ITERL
- The ‘while’ loop:
while cond do body end
=> inverse-condJMP
LOOP
bodyJMP
- The ‘repeat’ loop:
repeat body until cond
=>LOOP
body cond-JMP
The break
and goto
statements are translated into unconditional JMP
or UCLO
instructions.
OP | A | D | Description |
---|---|---|---|
FORI |
base |
jump |
Numeric ‘for’ loop init |
JFORI |
base |
jump |
Numeric ‘for’ loop init, JIT-compiled |
FORL |
base |
jump |
Numeric ‘for’ loop |
IFORL |
base |
jump |
Numeric ‘for’ loop, force interpreter |
JFORL |
base |
lit |
Numeric ‘for’ loop, JIT-compiled |
ITERL |
base |
jump |
Iterator ‘for’ loop |
IITERL |
base |
jump |
Iterator ‘for’ loop, force interpreter |
JITERL |
base |
lit |
Iterator ‘for’ loop, JIT-compiled |
ITRNL |
base |
jump |
Iterator ‘for … pairs’ loop |
IITRNL |
base |
jump |
Iterator ‘for … pairs’ loop, force interpreter |
JITRNL |
base |
lit |
Iterator ‘for … pairs’ loop, JIT-compiled |
LOOP |
rbase |
jump |
Generic loop |
ILOOP |
rbase |
jump |
Generic loop, force interpreter |
JLOOP |
rbase |
lit |
Generic loop, JIT-compiled |
JMP |
rbase |
jump |
Jump |
Operand A holds the first unused slot for the JMP
instruction, the base slot
for the loop control variables of the *FOR*
instructions (idx
, stop
,
step
, ext idx
) or the base of the returned results from the iterator for
the *ITERL
instructions (stored below are func
, state
and ctl
).
The JFORL
, JITERL
and JLOOP
instructions store the trace number in
operand D (JFORI
retrieves it from the corresponding JFORL
). Otherwise,
operand D points to the first instruction after the loop.
The FORL
, ITERL
and LOOP
instructions do hotspot detection. Trace
recording is triggered if the loop is executed often enough.
The IFORL
, IITERL
and ILOOP
instructions are used by the
JIT-compiler to blacklist loops that cannot be compiled. They don’t do hotspot
detection and force execution in the interpreter.
The JFORI
, JFORL
, JITERL
and JLOOP
instructions enter a
JIT-compiled trace if the loop-entry condition is true.
The *FORL
instructions do idx = idx + step
first. All *FOR*
instructions check that idx <= stop
(if step >= 0
) or idx >= stop
(if step < 0
). If true, idx
is copied to the ext idx
slot (visible
loop variable in the loop body). Then the loop body or the JIT-compiled trace is
entered. Otherwise, the loop is left by continuing with the next instruction
after the *FORL
.
The *ITERL
instructions check that the first result returned by the iterator
in slot A is non-nil
. If true, this value is copied to slot A-1 and the
loop body or the JIT-compiled trace is entered.
The *LOOP
instructions are actually no-ops (except for hotspot detection)
and don’t branch. Operands A and D are only used by the JIT-compiler to speed up
data-flow and control-flow analysis. The bytecode instruction itself is needed
so the JIT-compiler can patch it to enter the JIT-compiled trace for the loop.
Function headers¶
OP | A | D | Description |
---|---|---|---|
FUNCF |
rbase |
Fixed-arg Lua function | |
IFUNCF |
rbase |
Fixed-arg Lua function, force interpreter | |
JFUNCF |
rbase |
lit |
Fixed-arg Lua function, JIT-compiled |
FUNCV |
rbase |
Vararg Lua function | |
IFUNCV |
rbase |
Vararg Lua function, force interpreter | |
JFUNCV |
rbase |
lit |
Vararg Lua function, JIT-compiled |
FUNCC |
rbase |
Pseudo-header for C functions | |
FUNCCW |
rbase |
Pseudo-header for wrapped C functions |
Operand A holds the frame size of the function. Operand D holds the trace-number
for JFUNCF
and JFUNCV
.
For Lua functions, omitted fixed arguments are set to nil
and excess
arguments are ignored. Vararg function setup involves creating a special vararg
frame that holds the arguments beyond the fixed arguments. The fixed arguments
are copied up to a regular Lua function frame and their slots in the vararg
frame are set to nil
.
The FUNCF
and FUNCV
instructions set up the frame for a fixed-arg or
vararg Lua function and do hotspot detection. Trace recording is triggered if
the function is executed often enough.
The IFUNCF
and IFUNCV
instructions are used by the JIT-compiler to
blacklist functions that cannot be compiled. They don’t do hotspot detection and
force execution in the interpreter.
The JFUNCF
and JFUNCV
instructions enter a JIT-compiled trace after the
initial setup.
The FUNCC
and FUNCCW
instructions are pseudo-headers pointed to by the
pc
field of C closures. They are never emitted and are only used for
dispatching to the setup code for C function calls.
All higher-numbered bytecode instructions are used as pseudo-headers for fast functions. They are never emitted and are only used for dispatching to the machine code for the corresponding fast functions.
Examples¶
Example 1
$ cat ./test.lua
a = 5
b = 7
if (a > b) then
print(a)
else
print(b)
end
$ ./luajit -bl ./test.lua
-- BYTECODE -- test.lua:0-8
0001 KSHORT 0 5
0002 GSET 0 0 ; "a"
0003 KSHORT 0 7
0004 GSET 0 1 ; "b"
0005 GGET 0 0 ; "a"
0006 GGET 1 1 ; "b"
0007 ISGE 1 0
0008 JMP 0 => 0013
0009 GGET 0 2 ; "print"
0010 GGET 1 0 ; "a"
0011 CALL 0 1 2
0012 JMP 0 => 0016
0013 => GGET 0 2 ; "print"
0014 GGET 1 1 ; "b"
0015 CALL 0 1 2
0016 => RET0 0 1